Constitutional Council (France)
Constitutional Council (France)
The Constitutional Council (French: Conseil constitutionnel; French pronunciation: [kɔ̃sɛj kɔ̃stitysjɔˈnɛl]) is the highest constitutional authority in France. It was established by the Constitution of the Fifth Republic on 4 October 1958 to ensure that constitutional principles and rules are upheld. It is housed in the Palais-Royal, Paris.
Its main activity is to rule on whether proposed statutes conform with the Constitution, after they have been voted by Parliament and before they are signed into law by the President of the French Republic (a priori review). Since 1 March 2010, individual citizens who are party to a trial or a lawsuit have been able to ask for the Council to review whether the law applied in the case is constitutional (a posterioricode: lat promoted to code: la review).
In 1971, the Council ruled that conformity with the Constitution also entails conformity with two other texts referred to in the preamble of the Constitution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the preamble[1] of the constitution[2] of the Fourth Republic, both of which list constitutional rights.
The Council and the enactment of legislation in France
- *This article refers extensively to individual articles in the Constitution of France. The reader should refer to the official translation [50] of the Constitution on the site of theFrench National Assembly. Another recommended reading is the Constitutional Council overview [51] on the Council web site.*
The Government of France consists of an executive branch (President of the Republic, Prime Minister, ministers, and their services and affiliated organizations); a legislative branch (both houses of Parliament); and a judicial branch.
The judicial branch does not constitute a single hierarchy:
administrative courts fall under the Council of State,
civil and criminal courts under the Court of Cassation, and
some entities also have advisory functions.
The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic distinguishes two kinds of legislation: statute law, which is normally voted upon by Parliament (except for ordonnances), and government regulations, which are enacted by the Prime Minister and his government as decrees and other regulations (arrêtés).[3] Article 34 of the Constitution exhaustively lists the areas reserved for statute law: these include, for instance, criminal law.
Any regulation issued by the executive in the areas constitutionally reserved for statute law is unconstitutional unless it has been authorized by a statute as secondary legislation. Any citizen with an interest in the case can obtain the cancellation of these regulations by the Council of State, on grounds that the executive has exceeded its authority. Furthermore, the Council of State can quash regulations on grounds that they violate existing statute law, constitutional rights, or the "general principles of law".[8]
In addition, new acts can be referred to the Constitutional Council by a petition just prior to being signed into law by the President of the Republic. The most common circumstance for this is that 60 opposition members of the National Assembly, or 60 opposition members of the Senate request such a review.[9]
Traditionally, France refused to accept the idea that courts could quash legislation enacted by Parliament (though administrative courts could quash regulations produced by the executive). This reluctance was based in the French revolutionary era: pre-revolutionary courts had often used their power to refuse to register laws and thus prevent their application for political purposes, and had blocked reforms. French courts were prohibited from making rulings of a general nature. Also, politicians believed that, if courts could quash legislation after it had been enacted and taken into account by citizens, there would be too much legal uncertainty: how could a citizen plan his or her actions according to what is legal or not if laws could a posteriori be found not to hold? Yet, in the late 20th century, courts, especially administrative courts, began applying international treaties, including law of the European Union, as superior to national law.
A 2009 reform, effective on 1 March 2010, enables parties to a lawsuit or trial to question the constitutionality of the law that is being applied to them. The procedure, known as question prioritaire de constitutionnalité, is broadly as follows: the question is raised before the trial judge and, if it has merit, is forwarded to the appropriate supreme court (Council of State if the referral comes from an administrative court, Court of Cassation for other courts). The supreme court collects such referrals and submits them to the Constitutional Council. If the Constitutional Council rules a law to be unconstitutional, this law is struck down from the law books. The decision applies to everyone and not only to the cases at hand.[12]
Powers and tasks
The Council has two main areas of power:
The first is the supervision of elections, both presidential and parliamentary, and ensuring the legitimacy of referendums (Articles 58, 59 and 60). They issue the official results, ensure proper conduct and fairness, and see that campaign spending limits are adhered to. The Council is the supreme authority in these matters. The Council can declare an election to be invalid if improperly conducted, the winning candidate used illegal methods, or the winning candidate spent more than the legal limits for the campaign.
The second area of Council power is the interpretation of the fundamental meanings of the constitution, procedure, legislation, and treaties. The Council can declare dispositions of laws to be contrary to the Constitution of France or to the principles of constitutional value that it has deduced from the Constitution or from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It also may declare laws to be in contravention of treaties that France has signed, such as the European Convention on Human Rights. Their declaring that a law is contrary to constitutional or treaty principles renders it invalid. The Council also may impose reservations as to the interpretation of certain provisions in statutes. The decisions of the Council are binding on all authorities.
In some cases, examination of laws by the Council is compulsory. Organic bills, those which fundamentally affect government and treaties, need to be assessed by the Council before they are considered ratified (Article 61-1 and 54). Amendments concerning the rules governing parliamentary procedures need to be considered by the Council as well. Guidance may be sought from the Council in regard to whether reform should come under statute law (voted by Parliament) or whether issues are considered as règlement (regulation) to be adopted with decree of the prime minister. The re-definition of legislative dispositions as regulatory matters initially constituted a significant share of the (then light) caseload of the Council.
In the case of other statutes, seeking the oversight of the Council is not compulsory. However, the President of the Republic, the President of the Senate, the President of the Assembly, the Prime Minister of France, 60 members of the National Assembly, or 60 Senators[13] can submit a statute for examination by the Council before its signing into law by the President. In general, it is the parliamentary opposition that brings laws that it deems to infringe civil rights before the Council.[9]
Another task of the council, of lesser importance in terms of number of referrals, is the reclassification of statute law into the domain of regulations on the Prime Minister's request. This happens when the Prime Minister and his government wish to alter law that has been enacted as statute law, but should instead belong to regulations according to the Constitution. The Prime Minister has to obtain reclassification from the Council prior to taking any decree changing the regulations. This, however, is nowadays only a small fraction of the Council's activity: in 2008, out 140 of decisions, only 5 concerned reclassifications.[14]
History and evolution
While since the 19th century the judicial review that the Constitutional Council brings to bear on the acts of the executive branch has played an increasingly large role, the politicians who have framed the successive French institutions have long been reluctant to have the judiciary review legislation. The argument was that un-elected judges should not be able to overrule directly the decisions of the democratically elected legislature. This may also have reflected the poor impression resulting from the political action of the parlements – courts of justice under the ancien régime monarchy: these courts often had chosen to block legislation in order to further the privileges of a small caste in the nation. The idea was that legislation was a political tool, and that the responsibility of legislation should be borne by the legislative body.[3][4][5]
Originally, the Council was meant to have rather technical responsibilities: ensuring that national elections were fair, arbitrating the division between statute law (from the legislative) and regulation (from the executive), etc. The Council role of safekeeping fundamental rights was probably not originally intended by the drafters of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic: they believed that Parliament should be able to ensure that it did not infringe on such rights. However, the Council's activity has considerably extended since the 1970s, when questions of justice for larger groups of people became pressing.[15]
From 1958 to 1970, under Charles de Gaulle's presidency, the Constitutional Council was sometimes described as a "cannon aimed at Parliament", protecting the executive branch against encroachment by statute law voted by Parliament. All but one referral to the Constitutional Council came from the Prime Minister, against acts of Parliament, and the Council agreed to partial annulments in all cases. The only remaining referral came from the President of the Senate, Gaston Monnerville, against the 1962 referendum on direct election of the President of the Republic, which Charles de Gaulle supported. The Council ruled that it was "incompetent" to cancel the direct expression of the will of the French people.[16]
In 1971, however, the Council ruled unconstitutional (Decision 71-44DC [52] ) some provisions of a law changing the rules for the incorporation of private nonprofit associations, because they infringed on freedom of association, one of the principles of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen; they used the fact that the preamble of the French constitution briefly referred to those principles to justify their decision. For the first time, a statute was declared unconstitutional not because it infringed on technical legal principles, but because it was deemed to infringe on personal freedoms of citizens.[17][18]
The Council increasingly has discouraged "riders" (cavaliers) – amendments or clauses introduced into bills that have no relationship to the original topic of the bill; for instance, "budgetary riders" in the Budget bill, or "social riders" in the Social security budget bill. See legislative riders in France.[20][21]
In January 2005, Pierre Mazeaud, then president of the Council, announced that the Council would take a stricter view of language of a non-prescriptive character introduced in laws,[22] sometimes known as "legislative neutrons".[23][24][25] Instead of prescribing or prohibiting, as advocated by Portalis,[26] such language makes statements about the state of the world, or wishes about what it should be.
Previously, such language was considered devoid of juridical effects and thus harmless; but Mazeaud contended that introducing vague language devoid of juridical consequences dilutes law unnecessarily. He denounced the use of law as an instrument of political communication, expressing vague wishes rather than effective legislation. Mazeaud also said that, because of the constitutional objective that law should be accessible and understandable, law should be precise and clear, and devoid of details or equivocal formulas.[24][27] The practice of the Parliament putting into laws remarks or wishes with no clear legal consequences has been a long-standing concern of French jurists.[28]
As of 2004, one law out of two, including the budget, was sent to the Council at the request of the opposition. In January 2005, Pierre Mazeaud, then president of the Council, publicly deplored the inflation of the number of constitutional review requests motivated by political concerns, without much legal argumentation to back them on constitutional grounds.[24]
The French constitutional law of 23 July 2008 amended article 61 of the Constitution. It now allows for courts to submit questions of unconstitutionality of laws to the Constitutional Council. The Court of Cassation (supreme court over civil and criminal courts) and the Council of State (supreme court over administrative courts) each filter the requests coming from the courts under them. Lois organiques, and other decisions organizing how this system functions, were subsequently adopted. The revised system was activated on 1 March 2010.[29][30][31]
On 29 December 2012, the council said it was overturning an upper income tax rate of 75% due to be introduced in 2013.[32]
Controversies
In 1995, Roland Dumas was appointed president of the Council by François Mitterrand. Dumas twice attracted major controversy. First, he was reported as party to scandals regarding the Elf Aquitaine oil company, with many details regarding his mistress, Christine Deviers-Joncour, and his expensive tastes in clothing being published in the press.[33]
In this period, the Council issued some highly controversial opinions in a decision related to the International Criminal Court, in Decision 98–408 DC [53] , declaring that the sitting President of the Republic could be tried criminally only by the High Court of Justice, a special court organized by Parliament and originally meant for cases of high treason. This, in essence, ensured that Jacques Chirac would not face criminal charges until he left office. This controversial decision is now moot, since the Parliament redefined the rules of responsibility of the President of the Republic by the French constitutional law of 23 July 2008.[34] In 1999, because of the Elf scandal, Dumas took official leave from the Council and Yves Guéna assumed the interim presidency.[35]
In 2005, the Council again attracted some controversy when Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Simone Veil campaigned for the proposed European Constitution, which was submitted to the French voters in a referendum. Simone Veil had participated in the campaign after obtaining a leave of absence from the Council. This action was criticized by some, including Jean-Louis Debré, president of the National Assembly, who thought that prohibitions against appointed members of the council conducting partisan politics should not be evaded by their taking leave for the duration of a campaign. Veil defended herself by pointing to precedent; she said, "How is that his [Debré's] business? He has no lesson to teach me."[36]
Membership
The Council is made up of former Presidents of the Republic who have chosen to sit in the Council (which they may not do if they become directly involved in politics again), and nine other members who serve non-renewable terms of nine years, one third of whom are appointed every three years, three each by the President of the Republic, the President of the National Assembly, and the President of the Senate.[37] The President of the Constitutional Council is selected by the President of the Republic.
Following the 2008 constitutional revision, appointments to the Council are subject to a parliamentary approval process (Constitution of France, articles 13 and 56). As of August 2009, these provisions are not operational yet since the relevant procedures have not yet been set in law.
A quorum of seven members is imposed unless exceptional circumstances are noted.[38] Votes are by majority of the members present at the meeting; the president of the Council has a casting vote in case of an equal split.[39] For decisions about the incapacity of the President of the Republic, a majority of the members of the council is needed.[40]
As of 2019, the current members are:[41]
Laurent Fabius, appointed President of the Council by President of the Republic François Hollande in March 2016
Michel Charasse, appointed by the President of the Republic Nicolas Sarkozy in March 2010
Claire Bazy-Malaurie, appointed by the President of the National Assembly Bernard Accoyer in August 2010
Nicole Maestracci, appointed by the President of the Republic François Hollande in February 2013
Jean-Jacques Hyest, appointed by the President of the Senate Gérard Larcher in October 2015
Michel Pinault, appointed by the President of the Senate Gérard Larcher in February 2016
Corinne Luquiens, appointed by the President of the National Assembly Claude Bartolone in March 2016
Dominique Lottin, appointed by the President of the Senate Gérard Larcher in November 2017
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, former President of the Republic, sits since April 2004
Alain Juppé, appointed by the President of the National Assembly Richard Ferrand in 12 March 2019
As of 2018, the following members do not sit but can if they want to:
Jacques Chirac, former President of the Republic (sat from May 2007 to March 2011)
Nicolas Sarkozy, former President of the Republic (sat from May 2012 to July 2013)
François Hollande, former President of the Republic (never sat)
The members of the Council, except for former Presidents of the Republic, are sworn in by the President of the Republic.[37]
The members of the Council should abstain from partisanship. They should refrain from making declarations that could lead them to be suspected of partisanship. The possibility for former presidents to sit in the Council is a topic of moderate controversy; some see it as incompatible with the absence of partisanship.[37] René Coty, Vincent Auriol, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Jacques Chirac and Nicolas Sarkozy are the only former Presidents of France to have sat in the Council.
Location
The Council sits in the Palais Royal (which also houses the Ministry of Culture) in Paris near the Conseil d'État.[42]
See also
Constitutional economics
Constitutionalism
in modern law the Cour d'assises exists only in the French judiciary and other civil law jurisdictions, i.e. Corte d'Assise Italian Cour d'assises Belgian Cour d'assises
it may also refer to obsolete courts in a number of common law jurisdictions, for example: Assizes Assizes (Ireland)
or royal writs, for example: Assize of Clarendon Assize of Northampton
Cour de cassation, highest judicial court in France
Court of cassation - general discussion, mostly dealing with common law jurisdictions
Court of Appeal (France)—Court of Appeal in France. Differs considerably from appeals process in common law countries, in particular, certain types of court cases are appealed to courts called something other than "court of appeal"
Cour d'appel – redirect to Court of Appeal (France)
Court of Appeal, Court of Appeals—redirect to Appellate court, the courts of second instance and appeals process in common law countries, which differs considerably from French appeal process
Judiciary of France
Ministère public - shares some but not all characteristics of the prosecutor in common law jusrisdictions. In France the procureur is considered a magistrate, for one thing, and investigation is typically carried out by a juge d'instruction.
Police Tribunal (France)
Rule According to Higher Law
Tribunal correctionnel (France)
Criminal responsibility in French law
Crime - in common law jurisdictions, a criminal offense, an illegal act. In French law, crime has a much more limited meaning than the Enl, closer to felony - a serious offense punishable by a penalty of more than 10 years imprisonment. A délit, which roughly corresponds to a misdemeanor, is a breach of French criminal law (droit pénal) but not a crime under French law.
Delict - general discussion of this term in civil law jurisdictions.